Cats, with their long tails and sharp claws, are furry animals often chosen as pets. It’s worth noting that cats belong to the same family as lions, tigers, and other wild creatures.
Around 10,000 to 12,000 years ago, cats established a special bond with humans in the Fertile Crescent. This region, which includes parts of West Asia, witnessed significant advancements in human civilization, including the rise of agriculture.
Cats have retractable claws that are covered by skin and fur when not in use. This helps to keep them sharp and allows for silent movement when stalking prey. The claws on their front feet are typically sharper than those on their hind feet. Cats can choose to extend their claws for various reasons, such as hunting, climbing, or gaining extra traction on soft surfaces. When scratching rough surfaces, cats shed the outer layer of their claw sheaths. Most cats have five claws on their front paws and four on their rear paws, with the dewclaw being located closer to the other claws. There is also a protrusion located further up the paw.
The cat, being a digitigrade animal, walks on its toes and the bones of its feet from the lower part of its visible leg. Unlike the majority of mammals, the cat utilizes a “pacing” gait, which involves moving its legs on one side of the body before proceeding to move the legs on the opposite side.
This particular gait enables the cat to position each hind paw close to the track of the corresponding fore paw, resulting in reduced noise and visible tracks. Moreover, this gait aids in providing the cat with secure footing while traversing uneven terrain. When transitioning from walking to trotting, it adopts a “diagonal” gait where diagonally opposite hind and fore legs move simultaneously.
Cats have a tendency to enjoy sitting in high places, which may serve as a strategic location for hunting or as an observation point to survey their territory. When falling from heights up to 3 meters, cats can use their acute sense of balance and flexibility to right themselves and land on their feet. This reflex is known as the cat righting reflex and is consistent in falls of 90 cm or more if the cat has enough time to react.
Cats possess exceptional night vision, requiring only one-sixth of the light level necessary for human vision. This is due in part to their tapetum lucidum, which reflects light back into the eye and enhances sensitivity to dim light. Their pupils are large and slit-shaped, enabling them to focus on bright light without chromatic aberration. In low light conditions, a cat’s pupils dilate to cover most of the exposed eye surface. However, cats have limited color vision and only two types of cone cells optimized for blue and yellowish-green sensitivity, resulting in poor differentiation between red and green hues. Their visual system responds primarily to middle wavelengths.
The hearing ability of domestic cats is highly acute in the frequency range of 500 Hz to 32 kHz. They possess the capability to detect a wide range of frequencies from 55 Hz to 79,000 Hz, which spans over 10.5 octaves, surpassing the human and canine hearing range of about 9 octaves. The cat’s pinnae or movable outer ears, aid in amplifying sounds and detecting noise locations, enhancing their hearing sensitivity. They can even detect ultrasound, which helps them locate and catch rodent prey. Recent studies suggest that cats possess socio-spatial cognitive abilities and can create mental maps of their owner’s location based on their voices.
The feline species possess a keen sense of smell, thanks to their developed olfactory bulb and extensive olfactory mucosa surface area measuring approximately 5.8 square centimeters (29-32 square inches), which is twice that of humans. Additionally, cats, like other animals, have a Jacobson’s organ in their mouths that aids in the flehmening behavioral process, allowing them to detect certain scents that humans cannot perceive.
Cats have a long history of using pheromones, like 3-mercapto-3-methylbutan-1-ol, for communication purposes, specifically through urine spraying and scent gland marking. Cats are also highly responsive to plants containing nepetalactone, particularly catnip, which they can detect at concentrations less than one part per billion. Nepetalactone affects approximately 70-80% of cats.
Compared to humans, cats have a significantly lower number of taste buds (around 470 versus over 9,000 on the human tongue). A genetic mutation shared by both domestic and wild cats prevents their sweet taste buds from binding to sugary molecules, resulting in an inability to taste sweetness. Instead, their taste buds are responsive to acids, amino acids, and bitter tastes. Additionally, cats have a particular temperature preference for their food; favoring a temperature of approximately 38 C (100 F) which mimics that of freshly caught prey. They tend to reject food that is cold or refrigerated as it signals that the “prey” item may be toxic or decomposing.
Facial hair that grows on the upper lip and cheeks of some mammals, typically longer and coarser than the surrounding fur and used for tactile sensation
Cats possess numerous movable whiskers, also known as vibrissae, which are located predominantly on their faces, to assist in navigation and perception. These whiskers furnish insight into the dimensions of openings and the whereabouts of objects in dim light by both direct contact with objects and the detection of air currents. Additionally, they prompt a reflexive blink response to safeguard the eyes from harm.
Outdoor cats are active during both day and night, with a slightly higher level of activity at night. Although domestic cats tend to spend most of their time around their homes, they can roam several hundred meters away from their central location and establish territories that range in size from 7 to 28 hectares (17-69 acres), as shown in one study. Cats have a flexible and varied schedule of activity, and they tend to be more active in the morning and evening, coinciding with the times when humans are most active. As they age, cats conserve energy by sleeping more than most animals, with an average daily duration of sleep ranging from 12 to 16 hours, although some cats can sleep up to 20 hours. The term “cat” refers to both domesticated and wild feline species.
Domestic cats exhibit a range of social behavior, from solitary individuals to groups of feral cats that gather around a food source. These groups are often led by cooperating females, with one cat typically dominant over the others. Each cat in a colony has its own territory, with sexually active males having the largest territories that may overlap with several females’ territories. The history of cats is characterized by the territorial marking through urine spraying, the act of rubbing objects at head height with secretions from facial glands, and defecation. Neutral areas exist between these territories where cats greet each other without conflict. However, outside of these areas, territory holders usually chase away strangers.
Cats communicate through various vocalizations such as purring, trilling, hissing, growling, snarling, grunting, and meowing. Their body language, including the position of their ears and tail, relaxation of the body, and kneading of the paws, are all indicators of their mood. The tail and ears play a crucial role in social signaling among cats. A raised tail indicates a friendly greeting while flattened ears indicate hostility. Dominant cats raise their tails less often than subordinate ones to establish their position in the social hierarchy. Feral cats are generally quiet. One of the cats initiates social grooming after a common greeting of nose-to-nose touching, which is a typical behavior in cat history.
Purring is believed to have evolved as a way for mother cats and nursing kittens to signal reassurance to each other, with kittens using it as a way to request care. Cats also purr when content, such as when being petted or while eating. While commonly associated with pleasure, purring has been observed in many situations involving physical contact with a trusted individual. Some cats even purr continuously when suffering from chronic illness or pain.
For a long time, the exact way in which cats purr has been hard to determine. However, it has been suggested that purring occurs when pressure builds up suddenly and is then released as the glottis opens and closes, causing the vocal folds to separate with force. The muscles controlling the glottis are believed to be controlled by a neural oscillator that contracts and releases every 30-40 milliseconds, resulting in a frequency of 25 to 33 Hz.
To maintain cleanliness, cats are known for spending significant amounts of time licking their coats. The cat’s tongue is equipped with backward-facing spines known as papillae, which measure around 500 m in length and contain keratin that makes them rigid. As a result, the papillae function as a hairbrush. Longhaired cats, in particular, may occasionally vomit fur hairballs that have accumulated in their stomachs from grooming. These fur clumps are usually sausage-shaped and measure approximately 2-3 cm (3/4-1 1/4 in) in length. To prevent hairballs, remedies that facilitate hair elimination through the gut should be used, along with regular grooming of the coat using a comb or stiff brush.
Male domestic cats have a higher tendency to engage in fights compared to females. In feral cats, the primary cause for fighting is the competition between two males to mate with a female, and the heavier male usually emerges as the winner. Domestic cats also fight due to the challenge of establishing territories within a confined space, and female cats fight over territory or to protect their offspring. Neutering can often reduce or eliminate this behavior, indicating that sex hormones play a role in such actions.
When cats get aggressive, they try to make them look bigger and more menacing by raising their fur, arching their backs, turning sideways, and hissing or spitting. Their ears are often pointed down and back to protect the inner ear and listen for any changes behind them while they focus forward. They may also make loud noises and show their teeth to intimidate their opponent. During fights, they usually grapple and use their forepaws to deliver powerful slaps to the face and body, as well as biting. Cats may also throw themselves on the ground defensively and use their strong hind legs to rake their opponent’s belly.
Although fights for mating rights can result in more severe injuries such as deep puncture wounds and lacerations, serious damage is usually rare as the fights are typically short in duration. However, untreated infections from scratches and bites can occasionally lead to death in cats. Bites are also the main way feline immunodeficiency virus is transmitted. Sexually active males tend to have many fights throughout their lives, resulting in obvious scars and cuts on their ears and nose.
Cats cannot use suction to drink liquids due to the inadequate shape and structure of their cheeks. Hence, they use their tongues to lap up the liquid, pulling it into their mouths. The cat’s tongue touches the water’s surface at a frequency of four times per second, and then retracts like a corkscrew, drawing water upward.
Both feral cats and free-fed house cats eat multiple small meals throughout the day, with variations in meal frequency and size among individuals. Their food preferences are based on factors such as temperature, smell, and texture, with a preference for moist foods high in amino acids similar to meat. Cats exhibit neophobia towards new flavors and quickly learn to avoid previously unpleasant foods. Contrary to popular belief, cats do not have a liking for sweet foods or milk cream.
Adult cats often suffer from lactose intolerance, as the sugar present in milk is not easily digestible and can lead to diarrhea or soft stools. Additionally, some cats may develop unusual eating behaviors and may enjoy consuming or chewing on materials such as plastic, wool, paper, cables, aluminum foil, or even coal. This condition, known as pica, can pose a significant threat to their health depending on the quantity and toxicity of the ingested items.
Cats are skilled hunters that target small animals like birds and rodents, making them useful for controlling pests. They employ two hunting techniques: actively stalking prey or waiting in ambush until they can catch their target. The choice of strategy depends on the type of prey available, with cats waiting outside burrows but actively pursuing birds. Unfortunately, domestic cats are a significant threat to wildlife in the United States, killing an estimated 1.3 to 4.0 billion birds and 6.3 to 22.3 billion mammals each year.
Some species are more vulnerable than others, such as house sparrows, of which 30 percent of deaths are caused by domestic cats. Similarly, in the case of ringed robins and dunnocks, 31 percent of deaths are attributed to cat predation. However, in certain regions of North America where larger carnivores like coyotes prey on cats and other small predators, the impact of cat predation on bird populations is reduced along with that of opossums and raccoons.
One of the most recognizable traits in cats’ hunting patterns, often misconstrued and disconcerting for cat owners, who view it as cruel, is their tendency to “toy” with their prey before releasing it. This behavior stems from an innate drive to guarantee that the prey is sufficiently weakened to be killed without putting the cat in harm’s way.
The act of presenting prey to human guardians is a poorly understood behavior in cats. This behavior can be attributed to two possible explanations. One theory suggests that cats consider humans as part of their social group and share their excess kills with them based on the dominance hierarchy, where humans are perceived as being at or near the top. The other theory proposes that cats are trying to teach their guardians how to hunt or assist them in the same way they would feed an elderly cat or an inexperienced kitten. However, this explanation does not align with the fact that male cats also bring home prey, despite their minimal involvement in raising kittens.
The fondness for play among domestic cats, particularly young ones, is well-known. This trait imitates hunting and is crucial in teaching kittens how to stalk, seize, and slaughter prey. Cats also participate in playful fights, both with other felines and with people. This conduct could serve as a means for cats to hone the abilities required for actual combat and could also alleviate any apprehension they may have about initiating assaults on other creatures.
When cats are hungry, they tend to play with toys more often. This is because the act of playing is closely related to hunting, and cats prefer toys that resemble prey, such as small, furry toys that move quickly. However, cats can quickly lose interest in these toys and become accustomed to them. While string is a common toy for cats, it can be dangerous if ingested and cause serious illness or even death. As a result, some cat owners replace string with a laser pointer’s dot for their pets to chase.
Queens, which are female cats, have multiple estrus cycles throughout the year, typically lasting 21 days. They are most receptive to mating from early February through August.
Tomcats are drawn to a female in heat and compete for the opportunity to mate with her. The successful male initially faces rejection but eventually gains permission. When the male withdraws, the female emits a loud yowl due to the backward-pointing penile spines on a male cat’s penis, which number between 120 and 150 and measure about 1 mm (1/32 in) long. These spines may enhance sexual stimulation for the female and encourage ovulation.
Following mating, the female ensures to clean her vulva completely. If a male tries to mate with her during this time, she will retaliate. The cycle is repeated after approximately 20 to 30 minutes, once the female has finished grooming. Since ovulation is not consistently induced by a single mating, females may not conceive from their initial mate. Additionally, cats exhibit superfecundity, meaning that during heat, a female may mate with multiple males resulting in kittens within a litter having different fathers.
The formation of the morula takes place 124 hours post-conception, followed by the formation of early blastocysts at 148 hours. Implantation occurs between 10 to 12 days. On average, the gestation period for queens is 65 days, with a range of 64 to 67 days.
Between May 1998 and October 2000, a study was conducted on over 2,300 free-ranging queens to gather data on their reproductive capacity. The queens had an average of three kittens per litter, with a range of one to six kittens. On average, they produced 1.4 liters per year, but the maximum was three litters in a year. Unfortunately, out of 169 kittens, 127 died before reaching six months old due to dog attacks and road accidents. The first litter tends to be smaller than subsequent litters, and kittens are typically weaned between six and seven weeks old. Sexual maturity is usually reached by queens at 5-10 months and by males at 5-7 months, although this varies depending on breed. Kittens reach puberty around the age of 9-10 months.
At approximately 12 weeks old, cats are prepared to be adopted into new homes once they are able to separate from their mother. To prevent unwanted reproduction and negative sex-related behavior like spraying urine and yowling, cats can undergo surgical sterilization as early as seven weeks old. In the past, this procedure was typically done between six to nine months of age, but now it is more common to perform it before puberty at around three to six months. Approximately 80% of domestic cats in the United States are neutered.
Pet cats are now living longer than they did in the past. Back in the early 1980s, their average lifespan was only around seven years. However, by 1995, this had increased to 9.4 years, and as of 2021, it’s around 15 years. There have even been reports of some cats living into their 30s. The oldest known cat, Creme Puff, lived until the age of 38.
A study discovered that neutering can enhance life expectancy. Castrated male cats live twice as long as intact males and spayed female cats live 62% longer than intact females. Getting a cat neutered is beneficial for their health since castrated males cannot develop testicular cancer, spayed females cannot develop uterine or ovarian cancer, and both have a lower risk of mammary cancer.
Cats have around 250 heritable genetic disorders, some of which are comparable to human inborn errors of metabolism. Due to the similarity in mammalian metabolism, genetic tests developed for humans can be used to diagnose many of these feline diseases. Additionally, cats can serve as animal models when studying human diseases. Domestic cats can suffer from acute infections, parasitic infestations, injuries, and chronic illnesses like kidney disease, thyroid disease, and arthritis. Vaccines are accessible for numerous infectious diseases, and there are treatments to eradicate parasites like ticks, worms, and fleas.
The domestic cat is a versatile species that can be found in many parts of the world. It has successfully colonized every continent except Antarctica and has even made its way onto 118 of the 131 major island groups, including the remote Kerguelen Islands. Thanks to its remarkable adaptability and ability to thrive in a wide variety of terrestrial habitats, it is widely considered one of the most invasive species on the planet. It can even survive on small islands without any human inhabitants. Feral cats are capable of living in forests, grasslands, tundra, coastal regions, agricultural areas, scrublands, urban environments, and wetlands.
The domestic cat is considered an invasive species due to two main reasons. Firstly, it can easily mate with wildcats, which can threaten the genetic diversity of some wildcat populations, especially in Scotland, Hungary, and possibly the Iberian Peninsula. This is particularly concerning in areas where human-dominated landscapes are close to protected natural areas, like Kruger National Park in South Africa. Secondly, introducing domestic cats to locations where no native felines exist can lead to a decrease in native species.
Domestic cats that were either born wild or have reverted to a wild state are known as feral cats. These cats are not accustomed to human interaction and can be found roaming freely in both urban and rural areas. Although the exact number of feral cats is unknown, it is estimated that there are anywhere from 25 to 60 million of them in the United States. Feral cats tend to live alone, but many also form large colonies that occupy a specific territory and rely on a consistent food source. Some of the most well-known feral cat colonies can be found in Rome near the Colosseum and Forum Romanum, where volunteers provide food and medical care for these cats.
The perception of feral cats by the public varies greatly, ranging from considering them as independent domestic animals to viewing them as pests.
Efforts to socialize and ‘re-tame’ feral cats for adoption can be successful, particularly with young cats such as kittens and those who have had previous interaction with humans, as they are more responsive.
Birds on islands can make up to 60% of a cat’s diet. However, it is often difficult to solely blame cats for the decrease in island bird populations. In fact, removing cats from some areas has led to an increase in smaller predators that also prey on birds, causing further declines. Domestic cats are a contributing factor to the decline and extinction of many species, including the South Island piopio, Chatham rail, New Zealand merganser, and the flightless Lyall’s wren which went extinct shortly after its discovery.
In just seven days, a single feral cat in New Zealand was responsible for the death of 102 New Zealand lesser short-tailed bats. On the other hand, it is estimated that feral and free-ranging domestic cats in the US kill anywhere from 6.3 to 22.3 billion mammals each year.
The effect of cats on mammal populations in Australia surpasses that of habitat loss. Feral cats take the lives of over one million reptiles per day, including 258 species. The Navassa curly-tailed lizard and Chioninia coctei are among the species that cats have driven to extinction.
Throughout the world, cats are a popular choice for pets and their population exceeded 500 million in 2007. For centuries, cats have been utilized to manage rodents, particularly in grain stores and on ships, and these practices continue to this day.
In addition to being domesticated animals, cats are utilized in the global fur and leather trades to create various items such as coats, hats, blankets, stuffed toys, shoes, gloves, and even musical instruments. It takes approximately 24 cats to produce a single cat-fur coat. However, since 2000, the United States and since 2007, the European Union (including the United Kingdom) have banned this practice.
The utilization of cat pelts for superstitious reasons in witchcraft has been a long-standing practice, and in Switzerland, they are still crafted into blankets for traditional medicine believed to heal rheumatism.
Efforts have been made to create a cat census through various means, including associations, national and international organizations (such as the Canadian Federation of Humane Societies), and online platforms. However, it appears that this is a difficult task to accomplish. The estimated population of domestic cats worldwide varies greatly, ranging from 200 million to 600 million.
After his images of Loco, an adorable stray he had taken in, were published globally in 1949, Walter Chandoha became known for his cat photography. He reportedly captured 90,000 felines throughout his career and kept a collection of 225,000 pictures that he used for publications throughout his life.
A cat show is a competition where cat owners enter their cats to be judged against a breed standard in various cat-registering organizations. To participate in a cat show, it’s necessary for a cat to be healthy and vaccinated. The regulations differ based on the organization, allowing both pedigreed and non-purebred companion cats to participate. The competing cats are evaluated for temperament and compared to the appropriate breed standard.
Viruses, bacteria, fungus, protozoans, arthropods or worms can infect or infest cats, which can then transmit diseases to humans. Even if the cat shows no signs of illness, the disease can still affect humans. The chances of contracting a disease depend on the person’s age and immune system. Those who live with cats or have close contact with them are at a higher risk of infection. Additionally, infections can also be acquired from cat feces and parasites. Salmonella, cat-scratch disease and toxoplasmosis are among the most concerning infections.
Cats were highly revered in ancient Egypt, with the goddess Bastet frequently portrayed in feline form, occasionally embodying the ferocious traits of a lioness. According to the Greek chronicler Herodotus, it was strictly prohibited to harm a cat, and upon the death of a pet cat, families would grieve and shave their eyebrows as a sign of mourning. Deceased cats were taken to Bubastis, a holy city, where they were mummified and interred in sacred tombs. Herodotus was amazed by the domesticated cats in Egypt since he had only encountered wildcats before.
Weasels were kept as pets by the Ancient Greeks and Romans for their excellent ability to kill rodents. The earliest evidence of domestic cats owned by the Greeks comes from two coins dating back to the mid-fifth century BC, depicting Iokastos and Phalanthos, founders of Rhegion and Taras respectively, playing with their pet cats. The ancient Greek term for ‘cat’ was ailouros, which translates to ‘thing with the waving tail’. Although not frequently mentioned in ancient Greek literature, Aristotle noted in his History of Animals that female cats have a natural inclination towards promiscuity.
The Greeks merged their goddess Artemis with the Egyptian goddess Bastet, incorporating Bastet’s connections with felines and attributing them to Artemis. According to Ovid’s Metamorphoses, during the deities’ escape to Egypt and transformation into animals, the goddess Diana transforms into a cat.
Due to their pleasant demeanor and superior hunting skills, cats became the preferred method of pest control over weasels. In the middle Ages, many of the attributes associated with Artemis and cats were transferred to the Virgin Mary. Cats are often depicted in religious icons such as Annunciation and Holy Family. According to Italian folklore, a cat gave birth to a kitten on the same night that Mary gave birth to Jesus. During the Age of Discovery, domestic cats were introduced to various parts of the world as ships’ cats were brought on board to control rodents and serve as good luck charms.
Cats were revered by many ancient religions as wise and spiritual beings who serve as companions or guides to humans. Despite being unable to speak, they possess great knowledge and are believed to refrain from influencing human decisions. The maneki neko cat is considered a symbol of good luck in Japan, while Norse mythology depicts the goddess Freyja riding a chariot pulled by cats, symbolizing love, beauty, and fertility. According to Jewish legend, the first cat was kept as a pet by Adam and helped rid his home of mice. Cats and dogs were once partners, but their relationship soured after the latter broke a promise they had made, leading to enmity between their descendants. Interestingly, cats and foxes are the only animals not represented in the water, while all other species have aquatic counterparts.
Islam does not consider any species as sacred, but Muslims hold cats in high esteem. According to some Western writers, Muhammad’s favorite cat was Muezza, and he loved cats so much that he would rather go without his cloak than disturb a sleeping cat. However, this story has no basis in early Muslim literature and appears to be a later tale associated with a Sufi saint named Ahmed ar-Rifa’i. One of Muhammad’s companions, Abu Hurayrah, was known as “father of the kitten” due to his fondness for cats.
Cats are often associated with negative superstitions in various cultures. For instance, some believe that encountering a black cat can bring bad luck, while others think that cats are witches’ familiars used to enhance their powers. The Kattenstoet (cat parade) in Medieval Ypres, Belgium, commemorates the killing of cats, while in mid-16th century France; people burned cats alive for entertainment. Norman Davies reports that the onlookers found this cruel act amusing as the animals suffered and eventually turned to ash.
According to James Frazer, burning a basket, barrel or sack full of live cats was a common practice. The basket was then hung from a tall mast in the middle of a bonfire. Occasionally, a fox was also burned. The historical background of cats reveals that individuals would collect the embers and ashes from the fire, convinced that they would bring about good luck. These spectacles were often witnessed by French kings who even participated in lighting the bonfire themselves.
Louis XIV presided over the midsummer bonfire in Paris in 1648, wearing a wreath of roses and holding a bunch of them in his hand. However, this was the final time a monarch would lead the event. In Metz, the midsummer fires were lit with grandeur on the esplanade, and people were entertained by the burning of a dozen cats enclosed in wicker cages. Likewise, in Gap in the Hautes-Alpes department, cats were roasted over the midsummer bonfire.
Cats are believed to have multiple lives in various cultures. The history of cats leads many countries to believe they have nine lives, except for Italy, Germany, Greece, Brazil, and certain Spanish-speaking regions who believe they only have seven lives.
According to Arabic traditions, cats have six lives. This myth stems from the agility and quickness cats possess to avoid dangerous situations. Additionally, when cats fall, they often land on their feet due to their innate reflex to twist their bodies around. However, it’s important to note that cats can still suffer injuries or death from a significant fall.
